Abstract
Behavioral watermarking embeds an owner identifier in an LLM agent's high-level action choices, giving provenance without touching output tokens. Prior agent watermarks break in two ways. First, all three prior schemes bind the watermark to the exact action symbol, so renaming a tool desynchronizes decoding even when the observation is untouched; in AgentMark's own robustness test, paraphrasing the observation alone drops bit-recovery to 16.8%. Second, every prior agent watermark studies only removal: none asks whether an adversary can forge a trajectory that verifies as someone else's, a question answered affirmatively for text watermarks (JovanoviÄ et al., 2024). We present Semantic Behavioral Watermarking (SBW): watermarking over semantic action clusters under history conditioning, with the public-cluster bin replaced by keyed collision-resistant binning whose fresh-bucket assignment is provably unpredictable in the random-oracle model. Across five agent models (3B-14B, four vendors) and three encoders the ordering holds on both benchmarks: on ToolBench (600 trajectories per model) detection under rewriting is 0.49-0.66 for cluster-level versus 0.05-0.17 for exact-symbol at a permutation-calibrated 1% FPR, at 72-83% choice agreement against 22-27% for logit biasing; on ALFWorld (100 episodes per model) it is 0.92-0.97 versus 0.00-0.01. Keyed binning takes adaptive forgery from 100% to the false-positive floor at the primary operating point (bge, r=64). We also mark the boundary that guarantee does not cover: when the adversary copies the victim's own steps, shuffled splicing is neutralized (0.000 on Qwen2.5-3B) but chained replay remains at 0.76-0.98 across the five models, reported as open. Paraphrase robustness costs about half of the per-step watermark capacity. Code is available at this https URL.
Abstract (translated)
URL
https://arxiv.org/abs/2610.08668
